Friday, September 21, 2018
Monday, October 3, 2016
ALTERNATIVES TO C++ (Reading Comprehension)
Lea el texto en español
Alternatives to C/C++ for system programming in a distributed multicore world
TEXT: DIRECT ORACLE ACCESS (Reading Comprehension)
Realice un resumen de cada párrafo
Direct Oracle Access |  |
| If you are using Borland's Delphi or C++Builder to develop Oracle applications, then the Direct Oracle Access component set can help you to make a seamless integration between this great development tool and database system. Not only will your application take maximum advantage of both products, your application development process will also benefit from the following key features: |
| High performanceBoth online transaction and batch processing applications can benefit from Oracle's performance features. Direct Oracle Access, as the name suggests, directly accesses the Oracle Interface. This guarantees optimal performance for standard database access functions. Support for Array Fetching, Array DML, PL/SQL Blocks, PL/SQL Tables, Local Statement Caching and the Direct Path Load Engine enable you to optimize your application's performance critical functions even more. |  High performance |
| Easy application distributionA Direct Oracle Access application does not require middleware like the BDE or ODBC, it merely requires Oracle SQL*Net or Net8. Consequently you can deploy your application without many of the version dependency or configuration problems typically involved with middleware installation. |  Application distribution |
| Oracle Package supportMost PL/SQL code in Oracle databases is programmed in packages. Direct Oracle Access provides a TOraclePackage component that allows you to easily call packaged program units without detailed declarations of these program units and their parameters. Furthermore Direct Oracle Access includes a Package Wizard that can generate classes to encapsulate the program units and record types defined in packages. This will make your Oracle packages a natural extension of the Object Pascal or C++ language. |  The Package Wizard |
| TOracleDataSetThe dataset component in Direct Oracle Access supports Oracle record locking, record refreshing, server generated values, automatic sequence value generation, and BLOB compression. Master/detail relations can automatically be setup if a foreign key exists between the master and detail table or if the master table contains one or more collection columns or attributes (nested table or varray). The TOracleDataSet can use much of the information in the Oracle Dictionary at run time. Server Constraints can be checked on the client, and constraint error messages can be read from a message table. Format masks, range values and default values can also be read from the dictionary. This allows you to create applications with a minimum amount of 'database knowlegde' compiled into the executable, dynamically adopting changes in the database without even recompiling it. |  The TOracleDataSet |
| Query By Example modeThe TOracleDataSet component has a Query By Example mode that enables you to provide QBE Forms in your application without any additional programming, and without any additional components or controls. The resulting QBE queries are performed on the Oracle Server, so that performance will be optimal and network traffic will be minimal. The user can supply simple query values such as JONES or 100, can include wildcard characters for string values such as JON%, and can include comparison operators such as >, <, NOT, BETWEEN, IN and so on. |  Query By Example |
| Oracle MonitorTo monitor the database access activities of your Direct Oracle Access application you can use the Oracle Monitor utility. It displays the SQL, variables, timestamp, elapsed time, network statistics, database statistics and query execution plan of each activity. This can be helpful to find performance bottlenecks, for tuning purposes, and to solve application errors. |  The Oracle Monitor |
| Alert and Pipe eventsThe Oracle Server includes a dbms_alert and dbms_pipe package for event processing. The TOracleEvent in Direct Oracle Access can function as a receiver for these events. It works in a background thread of your application, and can propagate database events to the familiar object events. These events can occur synchronously or asynchronously with the main thread of your application. |  Alert and Pipe events |
| SQL scriptsIf you need to execute many data definition language (DDL) statements, for example to perform the database installation part of your application, you can use the TOracleScript component. It has a property editor that allows you to develop the script and the individual commands. The extendible script language follows the basic SQL*Plus syntax and supports all SQL statements. It also supports substitution variables to make your scriptscustomizable. |  SQL Scripts |
| Advanced QueueingTo take advantage of the Advanced Queuing option of Oracle8 you can make use of the TOracleQueue component. The TOracleQueue component encapsulates the basic functionality of the DBMS_AQ package. It provides a convenient way to enqueue messages into a queue or to dequeue messages from a queue. Messages can be dequeued in a background thread of your application, and the events that are generated in threaded mode can occur synchronously or asynchronously with the main thread of your application. |
| Session PoolingIn server applications that frequently need to create sessions to process requests from client applications, it may be useful to use connection pooling. Without a pooling concept, each request could lead to an actual database logon and logoff. By using the TOracleSessionPool component, you can maintain a pool of database sessions that can be used and reused for different requests. You can define the minimum an maximum number of sessions in the pool, define the TimeOut behavior for idle sessions in the pool, and preset the username, password and database. |
| Support for Oracle specific featuresDirect Oracle Access supports many Oracle specific features. Besides the features mentioned above, it supports Oracle8 and Oracle8i features like LOB Locators, Objects & References, XMLTYPE, Timestamps, Scrollable Queries, Password Expiration, External Procedure development, and the Oracle Services for MTS. |
| System requirements Direct Oracle Access requires a Windows 95, 98, ME, NT4, 2000, XP, Vista, Windows 7, Windows 8 or Windows 10 client, with Oracle SQL*Net, Net 8, Net 9, Net 10, Net 11 or Net 12 installed. The supported Oracle Server versions are 7.x, 8.x, 8i, 9i, 10g, 11g and 12c on any platform. Direct Oracle Access is available for all recent versions of Delphi and C++Builder.Trial versions You can download a fully functional trial version to try out Direct Oracle Access yourself. Visit our ordering page for ordering details and price information. We have a customer list available if you want to get an impression of what organizations are using Direct Oracle Access. Source:https://www.allroundautomations.com/doa.html |
Monday, September 15, 2014
PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE: RUBY (Summary)
Haga un resumen de Ruby:
4 Reasons Why You Should Learn Ruby As Your First Programming Language
Learning to code has a steep learning curve. You’ll encounter foreign concepts, technical jargon, and difficult choices. One of the very first choices you’ll have to make is which programming language you should start with.
Programming languages are similar to spoken languages. Each programming language falls into one or more categories. A few categories you might have heard of include imperative, object oriented, functional, or logic-based. Fortunately, once you learn one language it’s much easier to learn a second language in the same category. Unfortunately, that first language is going to be tough to learn.
Ruby is a general purpose programming language created in the 1990s by Yukihiro “Matz” Matsumoto. It’s also one of the best languages to start with when you’re first learning to code.
Ruby is one of the easier languages to learn
I remember when I first started learning to code. It was an introductory Computer Science class and the course curriculum used C++. In the world of programming, everyone’s first computer program is one that displays the message “Hello, world!”. It’s known as the “Hello World Program”.Here’s what that looks like using C++:
C++ is complex
To display “Hello, world!” to a computer screen, you’ll have to learn multiple C++ functions and keywords.
Available at: http://www.skilledup.com/learn/programming/4-reasons-learn-ruby-first-programming-language/ (Access in June, 2014)
Ruby is considered a higher level programming language than C++. A high-level language features strong abstractions from computer details. Whereas low-level languages are closer to machine details (like memory addresses or CPU registers), high-level languages are closer to a naturally spoken language.
When you’re first learning to code, a high-level programming language like Ruby is much easier to use.
Available at: http://www.skilledup.com/learn/programming/4-reasons-learn-ruby-first-programming-language/ (Access in June, 2014)
Friday, September 5, 2014
8 VAIO NOTEBOOK (IMPERATIVE)
Traduzca las primera instrucciones de la PC del texto:
Connecting a Power Source
You can use either AC power or a rechargeable battery pack as a power
source.
Using the AC Adapter
1- Plug the cable attached to the AC adapter into the DC In connector on the computer.
2- Pull the prong on the AC adapter upwards and plug it into an AC outlet.
To remove the AC adapter
1- Unplug the AC adapter from the AC outlet and the adapter cable from the DC In connector on the computer.
2- Align the adapter cable with the groove on the AC adapter and wrap the cable around the AC adapter.
Using Battery Power
You can use a battery pack as a source of power. The PCGA-BP51 battery pack that comes with your computer is not fully charged at the time of purchase. Follow the steps below to insert and charge the battery pack.
To insert the battery pack
1- Move the lock lever on the bottom of the computer to the UNLOCK position.
2- Align the grooves and tabs on the battery with the tabs and notches on the back of the computer, and then slide the battery towards the computer until it clicks into place.
3- Slide the lock lever into the LOCK position to secure the battery on the computer.
- You can also purchase the high-capacity PCGA-BP52 battery pack as a separate option.
See “Using Power Saving Modes” on page 31 for power management information.
Wednesday, May 28, 2014
WIRELESS NETWORKS (READING COMPREHENSION- Present Perfect)
A) Please read this text:
WIRELESS NETWORKS LEAVE COMPUTERS OPEN TO "DRIVE-BY" HACKING by Will Knigh
A weakness with the security infrastructure protecting wireless computer networks have been highlighted by researchers at a computer security conference in the US.
The problems have been identified with the 802.11 set of specifications created by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers for wireless local area networks.
Wireless networks are growing in popularity. However, experts have described ways to "listen" to wireless traffic, intercept communications and even gain full access to that network.
"As 802.11 wireless networks become more common, companies' intranets are increasingly being exposed to hacking," said Dave Safford, manager of network security research at IBM.
Information on these vulnerabilities was presented on Friday at the Black Hat Conference in Las Vegas. This is the most important US meeting of computer security experts and underground computer hackers.
The wireless specification known as 802.11 is protected with a system called Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP). Communications are encrypted with a stream code, meaning that each bit is altered according to a secretly held key during transmission. There are a number of rules designed to ensure that keys are used securely and no one can eavesdrop on messages.
But Ian Goldberg, chief technical officer for Canada's Zero Knowledge systems, presented fundamental flaws with the implementation of the encrypting rules that leave 802.11 communications vulnerable.
He described ways to monitor wireless network traffic in order to gather information about how messages are encrypted. Given this, he says it is possible to modify and even decrypt communications altogether.
Multiple guessAnother conference delegate built on these vulnerabilities to describe practical methods of attacking 802.11 networks. Tim Newsham, a consultant with US security firm @Stake, outlined a technique for decoding messages by testing out a series of cryptographic keys at high speed. Further research indicates that networks using encryption that cannot be cracked in this way may still be vulnerable to automated password guessing.
"WEP is inherently insecure," Newsham said. "So using WEP is essentially just throwing another barrier in front of the attacker."
Another computer security expert, Mandy Andress of ArcSec Technologies, described how unprotected wireless networks can be attacked in many real situations by roaming hackers.
Ollie Whitehouse, a computer security expert with @Stake in the UK says that research in this area is likely to increase investment in wireless security. "There are flaws that require modification and I think you will also see people investing in larger encryption keys and incurring the computational overhead," he told New Scientist. The first industry steps to secure the standard have already taken place. IBM has developed software for a wireless handheld computer that will automatically alert a user to potential vulnerabilities in a particular 802.11 network.
Now say if these statements on the text are True or False:
WIRELESS NETWORKS LEAVE COMPUTERS OPEN TO "DRIVE-BY" HACKING by Will Knigh
A weakness with the security infrastructure protecting wireless computer networks have been highlighted by researchers at a computer security conference in the US.
The problems have been identified with the 802.11 set of specifications created by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers for wireless local area networks.
Wireless networks are growing in popularity. However, experts have described ways to "listen" to wireless traffic, intercept communications and even gain full access to that network.
"As 802.11 wireless networks become more common, companies' intranets are increasingly being exposed to hacking," said Dave Safford, manager of network security research at IBM.
Information on these vulnerabilities was presented on Friday at the Black Hat Conference in Las Vegas. This is the most important US meeting of computer security experts and underground computer hackers.
The wireless specification known as 802.11 is protected with a system called Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP). Communications are encrypted with a stream code, meaning that each bit is altered according to a secretly held key during transmission. There are a number of rules designed to ensure that keys are used securely and no one can eavesdrop on messages.
But Ian Goldberg, chief technical officer for Canada's Zero Knowledge systems, presented fundamental flaws with the implementation of the encrypting rules that leave 802.11 communications vulnerable.
He described ways to monitor wireless network traffic in order to gather information about how messages are encrypted. Given this, he says it is possible to modify and even decrypt communications altogether.
Multiple guessAnother conference delegate built on these vulnerabilities to describe practical methods of attacking 802.11 networks. Tim Newsham, a consultant with US security firm @Stake, outlined a technique for decoding messages by testing out a series of cryptographic keys at high speed. Further research indicates that networks using encryption that cannot be cracked in this way may still be vulnerable to automated password guessing.
"WEP is inherently insecure," Newsham said. "So using WEP is essentially just throwing another barrier in front of the attacker."
Another computer security expert, Mandy Andress of ArcSec Technologies, described how unprotected wireless networks can be attacked in many real situations by roaming hackers.
Ollie Whitehouse, a computer security expert with @Stake in the UK says that research in this area is likely to increase investment in wireless security. "There are flaws that require modification and I think you will also see people investing in larger encryption keys and incurring the computational overhead," he told New Scientist. The first industry steps to secure the standard have already taken place. IBM has developed software for a wireless handheld computer that will automatically alert a user to potential vulnerabilities in a particular 802.11 network.
Now say if these statements on the text are True or False:
1. Researchers at the conference said wireless networks are not safe ................ True - False
2. The 802.11 specifications were written by wireless networks users ............... True - False
3. A lot of people are using wireless networks .................................................. True - False
4. Legitimate experts and illegal hackers meet at the Black Hat Conference ....... True - False
5. Communications encrypted with a stream cipher are supposed to be safe ...... True - False
6. Ian Goldberg thinks 802.11 communications are vulnerable ........................... True - False
7. Newsham contradicted Goldberg ................................................................. True - False
8. Encryptions that are cracked in the way Newsham explained are vulnerable ... True - False
9. Mandy Andress is a real roaming hacker ....................................................... True - False
10. IBM has developed software to protect users from hackers ........................ True - False
Now answer:
1) The word "highlighted" (line 2) suggests that .................
a) the speakers were using colour pencils.
b) researchers put special emphasis on this idea.
c) researchers were the stars at this congress.
2) When we hear other people's conversations, we ................
a) intercept their conversation.
b) drive-by.
c) listen.
3) The Black Hat conference has a high profile. In other words, it is ...................
a) very expensive.
b) prestigious and famous.
c) broadcast by TV.
4) "... secretly held... "in line 21 means that ...................
a) nobody knows that this key exists.
b) it is difficult to find this key.
c) a person presses this key during the operation, but nobody knows about it.
5) "... in order to ... " in line 28 is used to express ...........
a) condition.
b) purpose.
c) opposition.
6) "Further .... " in line 36 means ....
a) later research.
b) more complex research.
c) more research.
7) In ".... by testing out .... " in line 35, the preposition "by" is used to express ....
a) the method they used.
b) what they were doing at the moment.
c) the author.
8) In "...a computer security expert with @Stake...", the preposition "with" denotes that...
a) this man is the owner of the company.
b) he works for that company.
c) he uses @Stake.
9) The word "flaws" in line 46 refers to ..........
a) problems with the security experts.
b) changes to the encryption process.
c) problems with wireless networks.
10) A handheld computer is one which ..........
a) is user-friendly.
b) is very handy, good for many jobs.
c) is small enough to be rested on one’s hand.
Friday, September 6, 2013
READING COMPREHENSION: COMPUTER HOME APPLICATIONS
Home Applications
In 1977, Ken Olsen was president of the Digital Equipment Corporation, then the number two computer vendor in the world (after IBM). When asked why Digital was not going after the personal computer market in a big way, he said: ''There is no reason for any individual to have a computer in his home.'' History showed otherwise and Digital no longer exists. Why do people buy computers for home use? Initially, for word processing and games, but in recent years that picture has changed radically. Probably the biggest reason now is for Internet access.
Some of the more popular uses of the Internet for home users are as follows:
1. Access to remote information.
2. Person-to-person communication.
3. Interactive entertainment.
4. Electronic commerce.
Access to remote information comes in many forms. It can be surfing the World Wide Web for information or just for fun. Information available includes the arts, business, cooking, government, health, history, hobbies, recreation, science, sports, travel, and many others. Fun comes in too many ways to mention, plus some ways that are better left unmentioned.
Many newspapers have gone on-line and can be personalized. For example, it is sometimes possible to tell a newspaper that you want everything about corrupt politicians, big fires, scandals involving celebrities, and epidemics, but no football, thank you. Sometimes it is even possible to have the selected articles downloaded to your hard disk while you sleep or printed on your printer just before breakfast. As this trend continues, it will cause massive unemployment among 12-year-old paperboys, but newspapers like it because distribution has always been the weakest link in the whole production chain.
The next step beyond newspapers (plus magazines and scientific journals) is the on-line digital library. Many professional organizations, such as the ACM (http://www.acm.org/) and the IEEE Computer Society (www.computer.org), already have many journals and conference proceedings on-line. Other groups are following rapidly. Depending on the cost, size, and weight of book-sized notebook computers, printed books may become obsolete. Skeptics should take note of the effect the printing press had on the medieval illuminated manuscript.
All of the above applications involve interactions between a person and a remote database full of information.
The second broad category of network use is person-to-person communication, basically the 21st century's answer to the 19th century's telephone. E-mail is already used on a daily basis by millions of people all over the world and its use is growing rapidly. It already contains audio and video as well as text and pictures.
PRACTICA: CONTESTE LAS PREGUNTAS QUE ESTAN EN EL COMENTARIO
In 1977, Ken Olsen was president of the Digital Equipment Corporation, then the number two computer vendor in the world (after IBM). When asked why Digital was not going after the personal computer market in a big way, he said: ''There is no reason for any individual to have a computer in his home.'' History showed otherwise and Digital no longer exists. Why do people buy computers for home use? Initially, for word processing and games, but in recent years that picture has changed radically. Probably the biggest reason now is for Internet access.
Some of the more popular uses of the Internet for home users are as follows:
1. Access to remote information.
2. Person-to-person communication.
3. Interactive entertainment.
4. Electronic commerce.
Access to remote information comes in many forms. It can be surfing the World Wide Web for information or just for fun. Information available includes the arts, business, cooking, government, health, history, hobbies, recreation, science, sports, travel, and many others. Fun comes in too many ways to mention, plus some ways that are better left unmentioned.
Many newspapers have gone on-line and can be personalized. For example, it is sometimes possible to tell a newspaper that you want everything about corrupt politicians, big fires, scandals involving celebrities, and epidemics, but no football, thank you. Sometimes it is even possible to have the selected articles downloaded to your hard disk while you sleep or printed on your printer just before breakfast. As this trend continues, it will cause massive unemployment among 12-year-old paperboys, but newspapers like it because distribution has always been the weakest link in the whole production chain.
The next step beyond newspapers (plus magazines and scientific journals) is the on-line digital library. Many professional organizations, such as the ACM (http://www.acm.org/) and the IEEE Computer Society (www.computer.org), already have many journals and conference proceedings on-line. Other groups are following rapidly. Depending on the cost, size, and weight of book-sized notebook computers, printed books may become obsolete. Skeptics should take note of the effect the printing press had on the medieval illuminated manuscript.
All of the above applications involve interactions between a person and a remote database full of information.
The second broad category of network use is person-to-person communication, basically the 21st century's answer to the 19th century's telephone. E-mail is already used on a daily basis by millions of people all over the world and its use is growing rapidly. It already contains audio and video as well as text and pictures.
PRACTICA: CONTESTE LAS PREGUNTAS QUE ESTAN EN EL COMENTARIO
Thursday, September 5, 2013
READING COMPREHENSION: MICROSERVER CHIPS (PRÁCTICA)
Realice la práctica que se consigna al final del texto
Intel on Wednesday introduced new 64-bit Atom C2000 processors based on the company's 22-nanometer "Silvermont" microarchitecture for microserver, storage, and networking installations in the data center.
The new System-on-a-Chip (SoC) products include one line for microservers and cold storage platforms formerly code named Avoton, and a second group of SoCs known as Rangeley which are being positioned for entry networking platforms. Intel offered a glance at Atom products at its Datacenter Day event in July.
Avoton and Rangeley, are coming out just nine months after Intel introduced its first-ever Atom SoCs for data center operations, a move that has heated the competition with other players pushing ARM-based chips for ultra low-power microservers like Calxeda.
Intel's traditional x86 rival Advanced Micro Devices has its foot in both camps at the moment, partnering with ARM to help develop the latter's own forthcoming 64-bit architecture for 2014 while continuing to sell Atom-based server and data center fabric products through its SeaMicro subsidiary.
Intel, meanwhile, is invoicing its latest SoC offerings and a software defined networking (SDN) platform matching the new Intel Ethernet Switch FM5224 chipset and the company's WindRiver Open Network Software suite as the silicon for makers of systems supporting mobile and cloud services.
Also on Wednesday, Intel showed reporters and analysts at a San Francisco event what it called "the first operational Intel Rack Scale Architecture (RSA)-based rack with Intel Silicon Photonics Technology," a new data center fabric which utilizes a new MXC connector and Corning's Intel-certified ClearCurve optical fiber.
That configuration is capable of transferring data at speeds up to 1.6 terabits-per-second across distances of up to 300 meters, the company said.
Sergis Mushell, a principal analyst for Gartner, said Intel is at this point ahead of ARM on microservers but the race is closer in other data center product categories.
"The fact is that Intel invented the [microserver] category with Atom. Now ARM has been talking about this microserver category but the only company that has made progress there [with ARM-based products] has been Calxeda," Mushell said. "And we really don't know where ARM's 64-bit architecture will be in terms of comparison with x86."
But ARM is in a better position with regards to developing storage and networking products, the analyst said.
Source: Adapted from http://www.pcmag.com/article2/0,2817,2423985,00.asp
PRACTICA: CONTESTE LAS PREGUNTAS QUE ESTAN EN EL COMENTARIO
Friday, July 27, 2012
READING COMPREHENSION: PROCESSORS (PRÁCTICA)
PRACTICA: VAYA AL COMENTARIO Y DIGA SI LAS AFIRMACIONES SON VERDADERAS O FALSAS.
Source: www.enwikipedia.org (Access June, 2012)
PROCESSORS
Intel Core is a brand name used for various mid-range to high-end consumer and business microprocessorsmade by Intel.
In general, processors sold as Core are more powerful variants of the same processors marketed as entry-level Celeron and Pentium.
The current lineup of Core processors includes the latest Intel Core i7, Intel Core i5, and Intel Core i3, and the older Intel Core 2 Solo, Intel Core 2 Duo, Intel Core 2 Quad, and Intel Core 2 Extreme lines.
The original Core brand refers to Intel's 32-bit mobile dual-core x86 CPUs that derived from the Pentium M branded processors. The processor family used a more enhanced version of the Intel P6 microarchitecture.
The Core brand comprised two branches: the Duo(dual-core) and Solo (Duo with one disabled core, which replaced the Pentium M brand of single-core mobile processor).
Intel Core Duo (product code 80539) consists of two cores on one die, a 2 MB
L2 cache shared by both cores, and an arbiter bus that controls both L2 cache
and FSB (front-side bus) access.
NEHALEM MICROARCHITECTURE BASED
With the release of the Nehalem microarchitecture in November 2008, Intel introduced a new naming scheme for its Core processors. There are three variants, Core i3, Core i5, and Core i7, but the names no longer correspond to specific technical features like the number of cores.
The Core i3 was intended to be the new low end of the performance processor line from Intel, following the retirement of the Core 2 brand.
The first Nehalem based Core i3 was Clarkdale-based, with an integrated GPU (Graphics Processing Units) and two cores. The same processor is also available as Core i5 and Pentium, with slightly different configurations. It is similar to the Core i5-4xx series but running at lower clock speeds and without Turbo Boost.
Source: www.enwikipedia.org (Access June, 2012)
READING COMPREHENSION: Windows 8
Windows 8: What You Need to Know
The version of Microsoft's operating system ("Windows 8" is just a codename) is a radical
departure, designed for touch screens.
departure, designed for touch screens.
Essentially, Microsoft showed how Windows 8 will work on both tablets and traditional PCs. The operating system's home screen is filled with big, touchable panels, like the live tiles in Windows Phone 7, and from there you can tap and change your way to other touch-based applications. But underneath that touchy layer is plain old Windows, with a task bar, file manager, app icons--everything.
From the start menu, which shows basic information like time and unread e-mail counts, users go upwards to reveal the home screen and its tiles. As with Windows Phone 7, apps can show some information within the tiles--users needn't click on the weather app to see the current temperature, for example. Going from the right bezel brings up a menu that can take users from an app back to the home screen.
Users can multitask between open apps by going across from the left bezel. And therein lies the coolest-looking feature of Windows 8: When entering in a new app, users can leave it next to the app that's currently running. This allows users to view two apps at the same time--something that no existing tablet OS can do.
From www.pcworld.com
PRACTICA: VAYA AL COMENTARIO Y COMPLETE LAS ORACIONES EN ESPAÑOL.
Thursday, October 20, 2011
READING COMPREHENSION: OPERATING SYSTEMS (PRÁCTICA)
Realice las actividades prácticas del texto:
The term open source was first introduced by some free software hackers in 1998 to be a marketing term for "free software." They felt that some people unfamiliar with the free software movement -- namely, large corporations, who'd suddenly taken an interest in the more than ten years' worth of work that had been put into it -- might be scared by the word "free." They were concerned that decision-makers in these corporations might confuse free software with things like freeware, which is software provided free of charge, and in executable form only. (Free software means nothing of the sort, of course; the "free" in "free software" has always referred to freedom, not price.)
The Open Source Initiative (OSI) was founded to promote software that conforms with their public "Open Source Definition," which was derived from the "Debian Free Software Guidelines" (DFSG), originally written by Bruce Perens as a set of software inclusion guidelines for Debian. All free software -- including software released under the terms of the GNU General Public License -- conforms with this definition.
But some free software advocates and organizations, including the GNU Project, do not endorse the term "open source" at all, believing that it obscures the importance of "freedom" in this movement.
Whether you call it free software, open source software, or something else, there is one fundamental difference between this kind of software and proprietary, non-free software -- and that is that free software always ensures that everyone is granted certain fundamental freedoms with respect to that software.
The Open Source Initiative (OSI) was founded to promote software that conforms with their public "Open Source Definition," which was derived from the "Debian Free Software Guidelines" (DFSG), originally written by Bruce Perens as a set of software inclusion guidelines for Debian. All free software -- including software released under the terms of the GNU General Public License -- conforms with this definition.
But some free software advocates and organizations, including the GNU Project, do not endorse the term "open source" at all, believing that it obscures the importance of "freedom" in this movement.
Whether you call it free software, open source software, or something else, there is one fundamental difference between this kind of software and proprietary, non-free software -- and that is that free software always ensures that everyone is granted certain fundamental freedoms with respect to that software.
What's Linux?
In the early 1990s, Finnish computer science student Linus Torvalds began hacking on Minix, a small, Unix-like operating system for personal computers then used in college operating systems courses. He decided to improve the main software component underlying Minix, called the kernel, by writing his own. (The kernel is the central component of any Unix-like operating system.)
In late 1991, Torvalds published the first version of this kernel on the Internet, calling it "Linux" (a play on both Minix and his own name).
When Torvalds published Linux, he used the copyleft software license published by the GNU Project, the GNU General Public License. Doing so made his software free to use, copy, and modify by anyone -- provided any copies or variations were kept equally free. Torvalds also invited contributions by other programmers, and these contributions came; slowly at first but, as the Internet grew, thousands of hackers and programmers from around the globe contributed to his free software project. The Linux software was immensely extended and improved so that the Linux-based system of today is a complete, modern operating system, which can be used by programmers and non-programmers alike.
In the early 1990s, Finnish computer science student Linus Torvalds began hacking on Minix, a small, Unix-like operating system for personal computers then used in college operating systems courses. He decided to improve the main software component underlying Minix, called the kernel, by writing his own. (The kernel is the central component of any Unix-like operating system.)
In late 1991, Torvalds published the first version of this kernel on the Internet, calling it "Linux" (a play on both Minix and his own name).
When Torvalds published Linux, he used the copyleft software license published by the GNU Project, the GNU General Public License. Doing so made his software free to use, copy, and modify by anyone -- provided any copies or variations were kept equally free. Torvalds also invited contributions by other programmers, and these contributions came; slowly at first but, as the Internet grew, thousands of hackers and programmers from around the globe contributed to his free software project. The Linux software was immensely extended and improved so that the Linux-based system of today is a complete, modern operating system, which can be used by programmers and non-programmers alike.
What's Debian?
It takes more than individual software programs to make something that we can use on our computers -- someone has to put it all together. It takes time to assemble the pieces into a cohesive, usable collection, and test it all, and then keep up to date with the new developments of each piece of software (a small change in any one of which may introduce a new software dependency problem or conflict with the rest). A Linux distribution is such an assemblage. You can do it yourself, of course, and "roll your own" distribution -- since it's all free software, anyone can add to it or remove from it and call the resulting concoction their own. Most people, however, choose to leave the distribution business to the experts.
For the purposes of this book, I will assume that you are using the Debian GNU/Linux distribution, which, of all the major distributions, is the only one designed and assembled in the same manner that the Linux kernel and most other free software is written -- by individuals.
And when I say "Linux" anywhere in this book (including in the title), unless noted, I am not referring to the bare kernel itself, but to the entire working free software system as a whole. Some people call this "GNU/Linux."
There are many other distributions, and some of them are quite acceptable -- many users swear by Red Hat Linux, for example, which is certainly popular, and reportedly easy to install. The SuSE distribution is very well-received in Europe. So when people speak of Debian, Red Hat, SuSE, and the like in terms of Linux, they're talking about the specific distribution of Linux and related software, as assembled and repackaged by these companies or organizations. The core of the distributions are the same -- they're all the Linux kernel, the GNU Project software, and various other free software -- but each distribution has its own packaging schemes, defaults, and configuration methods. It is by no means wrong to install and use any of these other distributions, and every recipe in this book should work with all of them (with the exception of variations that are specific to Debian systems, and are labelled as such in the text).
In Debian's early days, it was referred to as the "hacker's distro," because it could be very difficult for a newbie to install and manage.
It takes more than individual software programs to make something that we can use on our computers -- someone has to put it all together. It takes time to assemble the pieces into a cohesive, usable collection, and test it all, and then keep up to date with the new developments of each piece of software (a small change in any one of which may introduce a new software dependency problem or conflict with the rest). A Linux distribution is such an assemblage. You can do it yourself, of course, and "roll your own" distribution -- since it's all free software, anyone can add to it or remove from it and call the resulting concoction their own. Most people, however, choose to leave the distribution business to the experts.
For the purposes of this book, I will assume that you are using the Debian GNU/Linux distribution, which, of all the major distributions, is the only one designed and assembled in the same manner that the Linux kernel and most other free software is written -- by individuals.
And when I say "Linux" anywhere in this book (including in the title), unless noted, I am not referring to the bare kernel itself, but to the entire working free software system as a whole. Some people call this "GNU/Linux."
There are many other distributions, and some of them are quite acceptable -- many users swear by Red Hat Linux, for example, which is certainly popular, and reportedly easy to install. The SuSE distribution is very well-received in Europe. So when people speak of Debian, Red Hat, SuSE, and the like in terms of Linux, they're talking about the specific distribution of Linux and related software, as assembled and repackaged by these companies or organizations. The core of the distributions are the same -- they're all the Linux kernel, the GNU Project software, and various other free software -- but each distribution has its own packaging schemes, defaults, and configuration methods. It is by no means wrong to install and use any of these other distributions, and every recipe in this book should work with all of them (with the exception of variations that are specific to Debian systems, and are labelled as such in the text).
In Debian's early days, it was referred to as the "hacker's distro," because it could be very difficult for a newbie to install and manage.
By Pete Login
Source: http://www.dsl.org/ (Access 23/05/2008)
ACTIVIDADES
1- ANSWER THE QUESTIONS:
a) ¿Quién introdujo por 1ra vez el termino "open source"?
b) ¿Porqué?
c) ¿Porqué el Proyecto GNU no da crédito al término "open source"?
d) ¿Qué asegura el software libre?
e) ¿Qué es Minix?
f) ¿Cuál es el componente principal del sistema operativo parecido a Unix?
2- DIGA SI LAS SIGUIENTES AFIRMACIONES SON VERDADERAS O FALSAS. JUSTIFIQUE LAS FALSAS:
a) Torvalds utilizó la licencia del Proyecto GNU.
b) Los que ayudaron a Torvalds a crear Linux eran sólo piratas informáticos.
c) Linux es usado en la actualidad por cualquier persona.
d) El autor del artículo se refiere a Linux sólo al kernel.
e) Linux no tiene otra denominación en el mundo.
f) La distribución del paquete Linux es la misma pero cada distribución tiene sus propios esquemas de paquetes, defectos y métodos de configuración.
ACTIVIDADES
1- ANSWER THE QUESTIONS:
a) ¿Quién introdujo por 1ra vez el termino "open source"?
b) ¿Porqué?
c) ¿Porqué el Proyecto GNU no da crédito al término "open source"?
d) ¿Qué asegura el software libre?
e) ¿Qué es Minix?
f) ¿Cuál es el componente principal del sistema operativo parecido a Unix?
2- DIGA SI LAS SIGUIENTES AFIRMACIONES SON VERDADERAS O FALSAS. JUSTIFIQUE LAS FALSAS:
a) Torvalds utilizó la licencia del Proyecto GNU.
b) Los que ayudaron a Torvalds a crear Linux eran sólo piratas informáticos.
c) Linux es usado en la actualidad por cualquier persona.
d) El autor del artículo se refiere a Linux sólo al kernel.
e) Linux no tiene otra denominación en el mundo.
f) La distribución del paquete Linux es la misma pero cada distribución tiene sus propios esquemas de paquetes, defectos y métodos de configuración.
Sunday, October 24, 2010
CONDITIONAL SENTENCES (PRÁCTICA)
TRANSLATE THE FOLLOWING SENTENCES:
1. If each block has only one place it can appear in the cache, the cache is said to be direct mapped.
2. When a miss occurs, the cache controller must select a block to be replaced with the desired data.
3. If the event occurs at the same place every time the program is executed with the same data and memory allocation, the event is synchronous.
4. If the user task directly had asked for help, it would have been a user-requested event.
5. If an event can be masked or disabled by a user task, it is user maskable. This mask simply controls whether the hardware responds to the exception or not.
6. If the program's execution always stops after the interrupt, it is a terminating event.
7. If the program's execution continues after the interrupt, it is a resuming event.
8. It is easier to implement exceptions that terminate execution, since the machine need not be able to restart execution of the same program after handling the exception.
9. If there were a dependency between two closely spaced instructions in the pipeline, it would stall.
1. If each block has only one place it can appear in the cache, the cache is said to be direct mapped.
2. When a miss occurs, the cache controller must select a block to be replaced with the desired data.
3. If the event occurs at the same place every time the program is executed with the same data and memory allocation, the event is synchronous.
4. If the user task directly had asked for help, it would have been a user-requested event.
5. If an event can be masked or disabled by a user task, it is user maskable. This mask simply controls whether the hardware responds to the exception or not.
6. If the program's execution always stops after the interrupt, it is a terminating event.
7. If the program's execution continues after the interrupt, it is a resuming event.
8. It is easier to implement exceptions that terminate execution, since the machine need not be able to restart execution of the same program after handling the exception.
9. If there were a dependency between two closely spaced instructions in the pipeline, it would stall.
Sunday, September 27, 2009
IBM COMPUTERS (Practice)
A. REALICE LA PRACTICA CON LA INFORMACIÓN DEL TEXTO:
IBM INTRODUCES COMPUTERS TO EASE INTERNET COMMERCE
International Business Machines introduced an upgraded line of computers that are aimed at making it easier for small and medium sized companies to do business on the Internet. The IBM AS/400e series of computer servers, with two times the storage and five times the memory of previous models, is backed by World Wide Web programs and has increased Internet security. It's also designed to ease the use of different software programs and languages like Java, Lotus Domino and ActiveX. The computers use new 8-way and 12-way processors. They use a new release of the OS/400 operating system designed to maximize performance according to the users' needs. The machines are divided into two series of models. One designed for interactive processing and another optimized for batch processing. The enhanced security features include a "Firewall" that controls user access to the Internet as well as protecting non authorized users of the public network from using the resources of the internal network. IBM and other companies are seeking to provide servers, which manage networks of PCs, and computers that make it easier to conduct business over the Internet. Business to business commerce over the global network is expected to rise to 327 billion in 2002 from eight billion this year according to research firm Forester Research.
B. PRACTICA. DIGA SI LAS AFIRMACIONES SON VERDADERAS (True) o FALSAS (False):
1) This is a series of modernized and modified computers ............... True – False
2) These computers are completely new ............................................True – False
3) You can store much more information in these computers ......... True - False
4) World Wide Web has nothing to do with these computers .......... True - False
5) The languages mentioned here will be unnecessary .................... True – False
6) Servers are larger computers ........................................................ True – False
7) The OS/400 will be adapted to the users' needs ......................... True - False
8) "Firewall" is used for protection .................................................... True - False
9) IBM does business only with PC networks ................................... True – False
10) Forester expect the global network to grow ............................... True – False
IBM INTRODUCES COMPUTERS TO EASE INTERNET COMMERCE
International Business Machines introduced an upgraded line of computers that are aimed at making it easier for small and medium sized companies to do business on the Internet. The IBM AS/400e series of computer servers, with two times the storage and five times the memory of previous models, is backed by World Wide Web programs and has increased Internet security. It's also designed to ease the use of different software programs and languages like Java, Lotus Domino and ActiveX. The computers use new 8-way and 12-way processors. They use a new release of the OS/400 operating system designed to maximize performance according to the users' needs. The machines are divided into two series of models. One designed for interactive processing and another optimized for batch processing. The enhanced security features include a "Firewall" that controls user access to the Internet as well as protecting non authorized users of the public network from using the resources of the internal network. IBM and other companies are seeking to provide servers, which manage networks of PCs, and computers that make it easier to conduct business over the Internet. Business to business commerce over the global network is expected to rise to 327 billion in 2002 from eight billion this year according to research firm Forester Research.
B. PRACTICA. DIGA SI LAS AFIRMACIONES SON VERDADERAS (True) o FALSAS (False):
1) This is a series of modernized and modified computers ............... True – False
2) These computers are completely new ............................................True – False
3) You can store much more information in these computers ......... True - False
4) World Wide Web has nothing to do with these computers .......... True - False
5) The languages mentioned here will be unnecessary .................... True – False
6) Servers are larger computers ........................................................ True – False
7) The OS/400 will be adapted to the users' needs ......................... True - False
8) "Firewall" is used for protection .................................................... True - False
9) IBM does business only with PC networks ................................... True – False
10) Forester expect the global network to grow ............................... True – False
Sunday, March 1, 2009
REVIEW 1 - SIMPLE PRESENT: COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE
COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE
In computer engineering, computer architecture is the conceptual design and fundamental operational structure of a computer system. It is a blueprint and functional description of requirements (especially speeds and interconnections) and design implementations for the various parts of a computer — focusing largely on the way by which the central processing unit (CPU) performs internally and accesses addresses in memory.
It may also be defined as the science and art of selecting and interconnecting hardware components to create computers that meet functional, performance and cost goals.
Computer architecture comprises at least three main subcategories
Instruction set architecture, or ISA, is the abstract image of a computing system that is seen by a machine language (or assembly language) programmer, including the instruction set, memory address modes, processor registers, and address and data formats.
Microarchitecture, also known as Computer organization is a lower level, more concrete, description of the system that involves how the constituent parts of the system are interconnected and how they interoperate in order to implement the ISA. The size of a computer's cache for instance, is an organizational issue that generally has nothing to do with the ISA.
System Design which includes all of the other hardware components within a computing system such as:
system interconnects such as computer buses and switches memory controllers and hierarchies CPU off-load mechanisms such as direct memory access issues like multi-processing.
It may also be defined as the science and art of selecting and interconnecting hardware components to create computers that meet functional, performance and cost goals.
Computer architecture comprises at least three main subcategories
Instruction set architecture, or ISA, is the abstract image of a computing system that is seen by a machine language (or assembly language) programmer, including the instruction set, memory address modes, processor registers, and address and data formats.
Microarchitecture, also known as Computer organization is a lower level, more concrete, description of the system that involves how the constituent parts of the system are interconnected and how they interoperate in order to implement the ISA. The size of a computer's cache for instance, is an organizational issue that generally has nothing to do with the ISA.
System Design which includes all of the other hardware components within a computing system such as:
system interconnects such as computer buses and switches memory controllers and hierarchies CPU off-load mechanisms such as direct memory access issues like multi-processing.
Sunday, February 22, 2009
EXERCISE N° 1: LINUX
Warm Up To Penguins The Zen Of Xen One of the hottest recent topics in the computer industry at this time is virtualization. Products such as VMware and Microsoft’s Virtual PC are trying to take advantage of the increasing demand to run virtual computers on top of a physical host. There are several reasons to do this. If, for example, you need to run a number of different versions of Linux from time to time, you can run them as virtual systems on top of a stable host without worrying about constantly reinstalling or corrupting your system. For businesses, virtual machines let many users share a single physical host. Because a system rarely runs at 100% load all the time, you can usually load-balance and get more bang for your hardware buck with virtual systems. Linux, of course, has a virtualization application, too: Xen. Xen is an open-source project organized by XenSource which is in turn owned by Citrix, known for GotoMyPC among others. Xen consists of a hypervisor, which is simply a software package that enables virtual hosts to run on Linux, and the virtual hosts themselves. If you’ve ever used VMware, there are some significant differences between how VMware (and Virtual PC) handles virtualization and how Xen does it. For example, VMware runs as a program (or service) that the virtual hosts run inside, but Xen actually is part of the Linux Kernel. The “host” machine is just another virtual machine (or domain, as Xen calls them) running on the hardware. Although this may seem a bit strange conceptually, it seems to pay off performance-wise.
Tuesday, February 3, 2009
REVIEW 2- SIMPLE PAST: HISTORY OF COMPUTING
HISTORY OF COMPUTING
Computing hardware has been an important component of the process of calculation and data storage since it became useful for numerical values to be processed and shared.
Devices to aid computation changed from simple recording and counting devices to the abacus, the slide rule, analog computers, and more recent electronic computers. Even today, an experienced abacus user using a device hundreds of years old can sometimes complete basic calculations more quickly than an unskilled person using an electronic calculator — though for more complex calculations, computers out-perform even the most skilled human.
This article covers major developments in the history of computing hardware, and attempts to put them in context. For a detailed timeline of events, see the computing timeline article. The history of computing article is a related overview and treats methods intended for pen and paper, with or without the aid of tables.
As early as 1725 Basile Bouchon used a perforated paper loop in a loom to establish the pattern to be reproduced on cloth, and in 1726 his co-worker Jean-Baptiste Falcon improved on his design by using perforated paper cards attached to one another for efficiency in adapting and changing the program. The Bouchon-Falcon loom was semi-automatic and required manual feed of the program.
In 1801, Joseph-Marie Jacquard developed a loom in which the pattern being woven was controlled by punched cards. The series of cards could be changed without changing the mechanical design of the loom. This was a landmark point in programmability.
Herman Hollerith invented a tabulating machine using punched cards in the 1880s.
In 1833, Charles Babbage moved on from developing his difference engine to developing a more complete design, the analytical engine, which would draw directly on Jacquard's punched cards for its programming.
In 1833, Charles Babbage moved on from developing his difference engine to developing a more complete design, the analytical engine, which would draw directly on Jacquard's punched cards for its programming.
In 1890, the United States Census Bureau used punched cards and sorting machines designed by Herman Hollerith, to handle the flood of data from the decennial census mandated by the Constitution. Hollerith's company eventually became the core of IBM. IBM developed punched card technology into a powerful tool for business data-processing and produced an extensive line of specialized unit record equipment. By 1950, the IBM card had become ubiquitous in industry and government. The warning printed on most cards intended for circulation as documents (checks, for example), "Do not fold, spindle or mutilate," became a motto for the post-World War II era.
Wednesday, April 30, 2008
BLU-RAY DISC (Translation)
BLU-RAY DISC
Blu-ray, also known as Blu-ray Disc (BD), is the name of a next-generation optical disc format jointly developed by the Blu-ray Disc Association (BDA), a group of the world's leading consumer electronics, personal computer and media manufacturers (including Apple, Dell, Hitachi, HP, JVC, LG, Mitsubishi, Panasonic, Pioneer, Philips, Samsung, Sharp, Sony, TDK and Thomson). The format was developed to enable recording, rewriting and playback of high-definition video (HD), as well as storing large amounts of data. The format offers more than five times the storage capacity of traditional DVDs and can hold up to 25GB on a single-layer disc and 50GB on a dual-layer disc. This extra capacity combined with the use of advanced video and audio codecs will offer consumers an unprecedented HD experience. While current optical disc technologies such as DVD, DVD±R, DVD±RW, and DVD-RAM rely on a red laser to read and write data, the new format uses a blue-violet laser instead, hence the name Blu-ray. Despite the different type of lasers used, Blu-ray products can easily be made backwards compatible with CDs and DVDs through the use of a BD/DVD/CD compatible optical pickup unit. The benefit of using a blue-violet laser (405nm) is that it has a shorter wavelength than a red laser (650nm), which makes it possible to focus the laser spot with even greater precision. This allows data to be packed more tightly and stored in less space, so it's possible to fit more data on the disc even though it's the same size as a CD/DVD. This together with the change of numerical aperture to 0.85 is what enables Blu-ray Discs to hold 25GB/50GB. Blu-ray is currently supported by more than 180 of the world's leading consumer electronics, personal computer, recording media, video game and music companies. The format also has broad support from the major movie studios as a successor to today's DVD format. In fact, seven of the eight major movie studios (Disney, Fox, Warner, Paramount, Sony, Lionsgate and MGM) have released movies in the Blu-ray format and six of them (Disney, Fox, Sony, Warner, Lionsgate and MGM) are releasing their movies exclusively in the Blu-ray format. Many studios have also announced that they will begin releasing new feature films on Blu-ray Disc day-and-date with DVD, as well as a continuous slate of catalog titles every month. For more information about Blu-ray movies, check out our Blu-ray movies and Blu-ray reviews section which offers information about new and upcoming Blu-ray releases, as well as what movies are currently available in theBlu-ray format.
Source: www.wikipedia.org.com
Blu-ray, also known as Blu-ray Disc (BD), is the name of a next-generation optical disc format jointly developed by the Blu-ray Disc Association (BDA), a group of the world's leading consumer electronics, personal computer and media manufacturers (including Apple, Dell, Hitachi, HP, JVC, LG, Mitsubishi, Panasonic, Pioneer, Philips, Samsung, Sharp, Sony, TDK and Thomson). The format was developed to enable recording, rewriting and playback of high-definition video (HD), as well as storing large amounts of data. The format offers more than five times the storage capacity of traditional DVDs and can hold up to 25GB on a single-layer disc and 50GB on a dual-layer disc. This extra capacity combined with the use of advanced video and audio codecs will offer consumers an unprecedented HD experience. While current optical disc technologies such as DVD, DVD±R, DVD±RW, and DVD-RAM rely on a red laser to read and write data, the new format uses a blue-violet laser instead, hence the name Blu-ray. Despite the different type of lasers used, Blu-ray products can easily be made backwards compatible with CDs and DVDs through the use of a BD/DVD/CD compatible optical pickup unit. The benefit of using a blue-violet laser (405nm) is that it has a shorter wavelength than a red laser (650nm), which makes it possible to focus the laser spot with even greater precision. This allows data to be packed more tightly and stored in less space, so it's possible to fit more data on the disc even though it's the same size as a CD/DVD. This together with the change of numerical aperture to 0.85 is what enables Blu-ray Discs to hold 25GB/50GB. Blu-ray is currently supported by more than 180 of the world's leading consumer electronics, personal computer, recording media, video game and music companies. The format also has broad support from the major movie studios as a successor to today's DVD format. In fact, seven of the eight major movie studios (Disney, Fox, Warner, Paramount, Sony, Lionsgate and MGM) have released movies in the Blu-ray format and six of them (Disney, Fox, Sony, Warner, Lionsgate and MGM) are releasing their movies exclusively in the Blu-ray format. Many studios have also announced that they will begin releasing new feature films on Blu-ray Disc day-and-date with DVD, as well as a continuous slate of catalog titles every month. For more information about Blu-ray movies, check out our Blu-ray movies and Blu-ray reviews section which offers information about new and upcoming Blu-ray releases, as well as what movies are currently available in theBlu-ray format.
Source: www.wikipedia.org.com
Wednesday, October 3, 2007
COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE
In computer engineering, computer architecture is the conceptual design and fundamental operational structure of a computer system. It is a blueprint and functional description of requirements (especially speeds and interconnections) and design implementations for the various parts of a computer — focusing largely on the way by which the central processing unit (CPU) performs internally and accesses addresses in memory.
It may also be defined as the science and art of selecting and interconnecting hardware components to create computers that meet functional, performance and cost goals.
Computer architecture comprises at least three main subcategories:
Instruction set architecture, or ISA, is the abstract image of a computing system that is seen by a machine language (or assembly language) programmer, including the instruction set, memory address modes, processor registers, and address and data formats.Microarchitecture, also known as Computer organization is a lower level, more concrete, description of the system that involves how the constituent parts of the system are interconnected and how they interoperate in order to implement the ISA[2]. The size of a computer's cache for instance, is an organizational issue that generally has nothing to do with the ISA.
System Design which includes all of the other hardware components within a computing system such as: system interconnects such as computer buses and switches memory controllers and hierarchies
CPU off-load mechanisms such as direct memory Access issues like multi-processing.
Once both ISA and microarchitecture has been specified, the actual device needs to be designed into hardware. This design process is often called implementation. Implementation is usually not considered architectural definition, but rather hardware design engineering.
Implementation can be further broken down into three pieces:
Logic Implementation/Design - where the blocks that were defined in the microarchitecture are implemented as logic equations.
Circuit Implementation/Design - where speed critical blocks or logic equations or logic gates are implemented at the transistor level.
Physical Implementation/Design - where the circuits are drawn out, the different circuit components are placed in a chip floor-plan or on a board and the wires connecting them are routed.
For CPUs, the entire implementation process is often called CPU design.
More specific usages of the term include more general wider-scale hardware architectures, such as cluster computing and Non-Uniform Memory Access (NUMA) architectures.
It may also be defined as the science and art of selecting and interconnecting hardware components to create computers that meet functional, performance and cost goals.
Computer architecture comprises at least three main subcategories:
Instruction set architecture, or ISA, is the abstract image of a computing system that is seen by a machine language (or assembly language) programmer, including the instruction set, memory address modes, processor registers, and address and data formats.Microarchitecture, also known as Computer organization is a lower level, more concrete, description of the system that involves how the constituent parts of the system are interconnected and how they interoperate in order to implement the ISA[2]. The size of a computer's cache for instance, is an organizational issue that generally has nothing to do with the ISA.
System Design which includes all of the other hardware components within a computing system such as: system interconnects such as computer buses and switches memory controllers and hierarchies
CPU off-load mechanisms such as direct memory Access issues like multi-processing.
Once both ISA and microarchitecture has been specified, the actual device needs to be designed into hardware. This design process is often called implementation. Implementation is usually not considered architectural definition, but rather hardware design engineering.
Implementation can be further broken down into three pieces:
Logic Implementation/Design - where the blocks that were defined in the microarchitecture are implemented as logic equations.
Circuit Implementation/Design - where speed critical blocks or logic equations or logic gates are implemented at the transistor level.
Physical Implementation/Design - where the circuits are drawn out, the different circuit components are placed in a chip floor-plan or on a board and the wires connecting them are routed.
For CPUs, the entire implementation process is often called CPU design.
More specific usages of the term include more general wider-scale hardware architectures, such as cluster computing and Non-Uniform Memory Access (NUMA) architectures.
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